The Chinese revolutionary Mao Zedong is said to have said that a Chinese person had three mountains on his back. The first is colonial oppression, the second is the oppression of tradition, and the third is one's own backwardness. But a woman has a fourth mountain on her back: men. Nigerian feminist critic Molara Ogundipe argues in her essay “African Women, Culture and Another Development” that an African woman has two other mountains weighing on her back: her color and herself. An examination of postcolonial and anticolonial African literature can shed light on how these six mountains interact to oppress African women. The novels Nervous Conditions by Zimbabwean author Tsitsi Dangarembga, . The novels give examples of how African women are negatively affected by indigenous traditions and colonial laws, so African men can escape, which may explain some of the problems with creating a national culture discussed by Frantz Fanon in his theoretical work The Wretched of the Earth. The novels suggest that black and white men not only directly oppress black women with law and tradition, but make women feel like they are a burden to men as well. The texts also show that the sixth mountain, "itself", is formed from the combined weight of the other five mountains, especially as women come to view themselves not only as inferior to men, but also as a burden to them . Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on “Why violent video games should not be banned”? Get the original essay Sembène Ousmane's novel Xala is set in Senegal shortly after the country's independence and focuses on El Hadji, a prominent man politician and businessman, and on the families of his multiple wives. The novel shows the double standard in how tradition affects men and women: men often choose to follow traditions they find beneficial while ignoring those they consider troublesome, while women are significantly more charged with tradition. This is particularly clear in the issue of polygamy. El Hadji invokes his African tradition to defend having multiple wives and having control over them. “His honor as an African in the old tradition was called into question… Had the country lost its men of yesterday? These brave men whose blood flowed in his veins? Ousmane writes when El Hadji feels his masculinity is threatened by the suggestion that he must consult his first two wives before taking a third (Ousmane 7-9). His wives are not completely powerless, since they can choose divorce. However, women recognize that their value in society is largely based on having a husband. As Adja Awa Astou, El Hadji's first wife, said to their eldest daughter Rama: “Do you think I should divorce? Where would I go at my age? Where could I find another husband? (12). The only alternative she offers is to remarry, which suggests that in Senegalese society there are few options for women, so even with the legal freedoms they have, such as divorce, it is often more advantageous for them to align themselves with traditional power structures. . His second wife Oumi N'Doye was told by her mother: “But why divorce? Without the help of a man, a woman must resort to prostitution to live and raise her children,”further emphasizing the idea that for Senegalese women, the freedom to divorce is hollow (34). However, even though El Hadji defends his freedom by agreeing to take multiple wives citing a sense of African tradition, he ignores other traditions with which he does not agree. When Yay Bineta, a relative of his new third wife, offers to participate in a fertility ritual before consummating his marriage, he refuses, saying that he will not "make a fool of himself with this sleight of hand", showing that he does not believe in the effectiveness or importance of this tradition (18). “He was sufficiently Westernized not to believe in this superstition at all,” writes Ousmane, demonstrating that El Hadji was a hypocrite; he is perhaps sufficiently “Westernized” not to believe in a fertility ritual, but he is not too Westernized to stop believing in his right to polygamy (18). This suggests that El Hadji does not care as much about following African traditions as he claims, but rather uses them as an excuse to continue following the traditions he wants, such as polygamy. Indeed, El Hadji agrees with African traditions to the extent that they allow him to maintain his power, particularly over women. The women of Xala, unfortunately, cannot get rid of the mountain of traditions as easily as the men. Yay Bineta, the relative of his third wife, for example, is trapped by another "superstition", while El Hadj can afford to ignore what he considers superstitious. “Yay ​​Bineta has always been chased by bad luck,” writes Ousmane. “She had two husbands, both now in their graves. Traditionalists believed that it must have had its fill of deaths: a third victim. So no man would marry her for fear of being that victim,” which poses a problem for her in a society where women seem to have few options outside of marriage (30). This suggests that Senegalese society as a whole is not “westernized enough” to forget certain traditions that weigh on women, but only those that weigh on men. Ousmane states that Yay Bineta lives in “a society in which very few women overcome this kind of reputation” (30). Even here, rather than saying "in which few people overcome this kind of reputation", he chooses to emphasize the inability of women to escape tradition, implying that men, let alone the less "westernized", are not as trapped by traditions and superstition. This suggests that El Hadji is not an outlier because of his status as a wealthy intellectual, politician and businessman, but that he is the rule. brother Nhamo and his uncle Babamukuru. Nhamo can go to school while Tambu mostly has to stay home with his family. When Nhamo returns from school, he makes his sisters go to the bus station to carry his remaining luggage, even though he is able to carry it all himself. “He didn't need help,” says the narrator, “he only wanted to demonstrate to us and to himself that he had the power, the authority to make us do things for him” (Dangarembga 10). This attitude illuminates Nhamo's interaction with Tambu; he only uses traditional roles as an excuse to support this attitude, but doesn't really care about tradition. For example, when he asks Tambu to fetch his luggage and she asks him to look after their younger sister while he is away, he says that "taking care of the children [is] not the duty of a man”, suggesting to Tambu that it is rather the duty of a woman. , therefore his responsibility, and that as a woman's duty, it would be inappropriate for him to do so (9). However, Nhamo shows that he cares very little aboutwhat his traditional duties as a man are supposed to be. As Tambu says, “helping in the fields, with livestock or firewood, all the tasks he did voluntarily before leaving on a mission, became a bad joke” (7). After spending time at school, he is no longer willing to help his family with agricultural work, showing that he does not really care about fulfilling his "duty as a man". Just as El Hadji ignores traditions he doesn't like in favor of those that give him power over women, Nhamo imposes the idea of ​​women's duties over men's duties as an excuse to force his sisters to work more while he does less, thus feeling powerful. even while ignoring his duties as a man. Tambu's uncle, Babamukuru, actually seems to have renounced most of his African culture, except, of course, his patriarchal position of power over his family and over women. He, his wife Maiguru and their children spent five years studying in England, and when they returned, the children barely remembered how to speak Shona, their native language. Babamukuru and Maiguru appear to encourage their children to emulate English culture and leave their Zimbabwean heritage behind. However, even though Maiguru is as educated as her husband, she is still relegated to a position of inferiority compared to her Babamukuru and must still serve him. This actually seems to be indicative of the novel's characters' general perception of educated women. Tambu's father asks the narrator: "Can you cook books and give them to your husband?" when she expresses the desire to continue her studies. “Stay home with your mother,” he said. “Learn to cook and clean. Grow vegetables” (15). This is what their society considers the role of women. Even as roles expand for both men and women to allow for new things such as higher education, the same fundamental gender roles remain; the man being the dominant head of the family and the woman remaining submissive. This is also the source of women's third problem, "backwardness." It is cultivated by society by denying women the same educational opportunities as men. Even refuting her father's argument, saying, "Was Maiguru educated and did she serve Babamukuru's books for dinner?" Tambu always emphasizes Maiguru's ability to serve her husband, since the idea that the wife should serve her husband is so ingrained in her society (16). Babamukuru more directly exerts patriarchal control over his daughter Nyasha, which allows Tambu to realize how women are unfairly victimized in his society. When Nyasha and her brother Chido come home late, Babamukuru turns all his rage on Nyasha, telling her that "no decent girl" would act the way she is, saying that she behaves "like a whore", while 'before that, he only said to Chido "you children are up to no good", which he says "cordially", showing the different gender norms he imposes on his children (114-6). Babamukuru begins to beat Nyasha and, in self-defense, she hits him back. Her response to his action speaks to her opinion on gender roles in their society “Babamukuru bellowed and sniffed that if Nyasha should behave like one; man, then… he would fight her as such” (117) By equating Nyasha’s actions with “the behavior of a man,” Babamukuru equates virility with violence. Furthermore, he equates virility with the ability to resist,. denying that this is a possible or permitted trait in women He tells her, "Even your brother doesn't dare challenge my authority", but that's largely because Chido doesn't have it.no reason to challenge his father's authority; it is not unfairly used against him as it is against Nyasha. Tambu interprets this as Babamukuru making Nyasha “a victim of her femininity, just as [she] had felt victimized at home… The victimization,” she says, “was universal. It did not depend on poverty, nor lack of education, nor tradition… Men took it with them everywhere” (118). Tambu recognizes appeals to “tradition” for what they are; This is not a legitimate devotion to African tradition, but an excuse for powerful men to remain powerful. The tendency of the male characters in these novels to ignore certain African traditions, with the exception of those which allow them to maintain their power over women, highlights a link between Molara Ogundipe's essay and that of Frantz Fanon. The Wretched of the Earth, which offers a possible explanation for why men can ignore traditions while continuing to impose them on women. Ogundipe argues that colonialism “brought out the fundamental sexist tendencies of pre-capitalist Africa” by reorganizing society in ways that effectively erased all existing sources of women's empowerment (Ogundipe 109). Fanon, in his essay “On National Culture,” also writes about how colonial powers worked to restructure African societies and how this affected indigenous traditions and power structures. He argues that the colonialists' goal was to "make the indigenous population understand that if the settler left, they would regress into barbarism, degradation and bestiality" (149). The result is that when colonial power is finally overthrown, even though indigenous people feel the need to embrace their old, repressed culture, colonial manipulation still exists in their minds. Fanon said: “The intellectual is terrified of emptiness, absurdity and savagery. Yet he feels he must escape this white culture” (157). According to Ousmane, African people, especially intellectuals like El Hadji and Babamukuru, have become "sufficiently Westernized" by settler efforts to undermine indigenous culture, but, in rebellion against the ousted settlers, they still feel the need to reject white culture. The novels suggest that this paradox is resolved by cultural double standards; men appeal to the sentiments of African culture, tradition and heritage to elevate themselves and keep women down, and as a means to satisfy their need to reject white culture. However, still affected by colonialism, they no longer seem to believe in many African traditions beyond those that are useful to them, allowing men to choose the traditions they follow while women are much more closely tied to the tradition. So, in effect, African women are still oppressed by colonial manipulation of indigenous culture, even after direct colonial rule has been removed from each country. These novels also show how women feel as if they are a burden to men, according to another source. to their self-image issues, or to the sixth mountain, “itself”. El Hadj constantly complains, even if it is ironic on Ousmane's part, about having to go back and forth between his three homes and his families. The oppressive character of these complaints is clearer in nervous states. When Nhamo, Tambu's brother, dies, Babamukuru tells their father Jérémie that "it is regrettable that there is no male child to take on this task, to raise the family in the face of hunger and need." ", implying that Tambu is simply a chargebecause she is not a man and therefore will not be able to contribute in a way that seems meaningful to her (56). His father responds by saying that "his acumen with books is of no use because in the end it will benefit strangers", further implying that educating him would be another unnecessary burden since it would only benefit his father. future husband, not to his family (56). Even beating Nyasha for staying out too late, Babamukuru asks, "How can you dishonor me...I am respected in this mission." I can’t have a daughter who acts like a whore” (116). Everything women do in novels is considered in terms of how it affects men, and anything that does not benefit men, even if it benefits women, is considered a burden to men, even if it does. They are clearly already in a dominant social position. This trend is most evident and disturbing in Zakes Mda's novel The Madonna of Excelsior, as the perception of black women as burdens to men comes not from other black men, but from white Afrikaner colonizers, dominant not only over women but also over women. on all indigenous Africans. The novel also shows how the colonial legal system directly oppressed black women in ways that did not affect black men. The novel frequently depicts white South African men frequently coercing black women into sexual relations, despite the country's "immorality law" prohibiting such relationships between blacks and whites. However, instead of condemning the men who not only initiated these relationships but coerced the women into participating in them, the South African legal system upholds the innocence of the men while condemning the women. The Rev. François Bornman, a respected Church leader in the community and one of the white men tried under the Immorality Act, states that "the devil had sent black women to tempt him" and that " the devil had always used black women to tempt Afrikaners” (Mda 85). Even though he claims it's his fault for not resisting this temptation, he still places most of the blame on black women. This, much like the appeals to men's tradition in the other novels, is an excuse adopted by men who refuse to admit that they have raped black women; another way of explaining their superiority. In this way, even white colonial oppressors claim to be burdened by black women, thereby further deteriorating their self-image. All this oppression adds up to form the sixth mountain: “itself”. Black women in these novels are constantly depicted as enemies of themselves and others. El Hadji's wives constantly bicker and accuse each other of all sorts of immoral activities. They, as well as the women in the other novels, frequently call each other "whores", recalling the Afrikaner view of black women as demonic temptresses. Excelsior's Madonna also directly addresses body image issues for black women. Niki, one of the novel's central characters, tries to look whiter by using skin lightening cream, even though it only harms her skin. The novels never mention men using such products, only women, implying that they did not face the same image problems. Popi, Niki's mixed-race daughter, fathered by one of the men tried under the Immorality Act, spends most of the novel insecure about her whiteness. features, hiding her light, straight hair in a headband, but at the end of the novel she ends up accepting, 1974.