Table of contentsHistory and causes of Islamophobia in RussiaManifestations of Islamophobia in RussiaIslamophobia in EuropeConclusionToday the world is facing many problems that relate to multiculturalism. Multiculturalism as a whole raises many different questions and issues for minorities striving to be heard. One of the biggest issues today, in my opinion, is global Islamophobia. It is difficult to define the concept of “Islamophobia” because this term covers very broad meanings and is subject to interpretation. In general, Islamophobia is considered a kind of xenophobia, a collective definition of various forms of negative reaction to Islam, as well as social phenomena associated with it. However, this definition may change as the problem evolves. For example, researchers G. Engelhardt and A. Krymin believe that Islamophobia is "actions and statements that Muslims consider hostile to Islam." In this term, they include criticism of Muslims, Islamic activists, Islamic dogma and social practices. However, another definition of Islamophobia emerged in 1997 when the Runnymede Trust published the report 'Islamophobia is a Challenge for All'. Gordon Conway, who led this project, believed that Islamophobia is "the fear and hatred of Islam and Muslims inherent in Islam and Muslims." media at all levels and in all sectors of society. “Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on “Why Violent Video Games Should Not Be Banned”? Get an original essay. The first mention of the term “Islamophobia” appeared. in the essay by the orientalist Etienne Dine "L'Orient vu de l'Ouest" ("The Orient seen from the West") to designate a negative attitude towards Islam, which has been traced through numerous clashes between the Muslim world and Europe from the Crusades to the period of colonialism, which was based on religion (Islam versus Christianity). Many of the definitions and variations of Islamophobia are explained by the fact that Islam, in all its forms, plays one of the main political, economic and social roles in society. For example, the fear of Islam from a political point of view is determined using the short formula: "Islam is not a partner, but an enemy." That is, global powers initially perceive Islamic states as a possible threat or obstacle. As a result, they come to the conclusion that such states should either be avoided, kept "in place", or used for their own purposes. Such unfounded prejudices are often the cause of military conflicts in the Middle East.History and causes of Islamophobia in RussiaIn Russia, during the era of the monarchy, the concept of Islam was rather vague, as there had restrictions on the distribution of religions and subjects had different rights and obligations depending on their religious affiliation. The leaders knew virtually nothing about Islamic culture and it seemed hostile and foreign to them. It can be said that before the revolution, there was clear discrimination against Muslims: their ability to be represented in government was limited, Islamic religious institutions had no autonomy and were regulated by authorities. secular. I think this policy was caused by the Russian Empire's problematic relationship with the Ottoman Empire which represented the Islamic world. These two states were the largest in Europe at the time and constantly carried out military operations. The discriminatory policy against Muslims has beenmanifested, for example, in the decrees of Emperor Alexander II. According to one of the decrees, non-Christians were only entitled to one third of the seats in the municipal council, regardless of their share in the electorate. And in 1892, this limit was reduced to one fifth. The tsarist government showed distrust of people of Muslim belief, even in such an important aspect as military service. If it was necessary to assemble a large army as quickly as possible, this freed the representatives of Islam in the Caucasus from the duty to serve. Another aspect of Islam is Wahhabism. It is a religious branch often confused with the Islamic religion itself. Wahhabism is a hostile, even terrorist, ideology. It seems to me that it is precisely the confusion between Islam and Wahhabism that is the main cause of Islamophobia in many countries. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the process of religious revival began in the country. These conditions were considered favorable by supporters of Wahhabism. The fact is that many centers of religious education, where representatives of the Muslim clergy were trained in Soviet times, were located abroad. Muslims in the North Caucasus had to build their own system of religious education. This process inevitably encountered a shortage of personnel and a lack of religious educational literature, based on the principles of traditional Islam in Russia. These shortcomings began to be compensated by foreign "benefactors" who offered teachers, literature and much more. As a result, it turned out that in middle and higher Muslim educational institutions that appeared in the North Caucasus at the end of the last century, teaching staff and textbooks were often of Arab origin. This is how the ideology of Wahhabism was introduced and promoted to impressionable youth. Another aspect that leads to the spread of Wahhabism in the territory of European countries and in Russia is the foreign policy strategy of the countries of Saudi Arabia. At least six thousand Arab charitable foundations have distributed Wahhabi literature in various countries around the world, including Russia, and sent preachers to local Muslims. Similar literature was spread by Russian pilgrims who visited Saudi Arabia during the Hajj (pilgrimage, visit to Mecca). The sharp rise in Islamophobia around the world is linked to the events of September 11 and the wars led by the United States in Muslim countries. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that even after the terrorist attacks, the perpetrators of which declared their attachment to Islam, no massive anti-Muslim speeches were recorded in Russia. This contrasts with the United States, where after the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, extreme anti-Muslim protests and media reports were observed. Besides the identification of Islam and terrorism (Wahhabism), other causes of Islamophobia can be identified. . For example, sometimes state authorities do not wish to recognize certain Sharia norms. The problem of banning Muslim girls from wearing hijabs in schools, universities and public places is well known. It is interesting that this ban may appear not only in non-Muslim countries. Turkish writer Orhan Pamuk in his work “Snow” describes the situation when in Türkiye, in one of the small towns, girls are forbidden to wear a headscarf. Turkey is a very ambiguous country from the point of view of Islam, it contains elements of strict Sharia law and a secular attitude towards the Koran. It turns out that such an interesting manifestation ofIslamophobia does not only apply to people of another religion. Regardless, the refusal of authorities to recognize such requests (especially in a multinational state) leads to Islamophobia and religious confrontation. The same effect has a critique of certain aspects of Islamic dogma and religious practice. Since criticism of any phenomenon is carried out mainly through the media, it turns out that any negative statements about Islam in newspapers, magazines or television programs lead to the spread of Islamophobia. From this arise various prejudices and stereotypes associated with Islamic culture.Manifestations of Islamophobia in RussiaMany researchers, politicians, scientists and specialists have different opinions about the manifestations of Islamophobia in Russia. This is due to the great diversity of cultures and nations that coexist in the Russian Federation, as well as the ambiguity of judgments and the danger of allegations of discrimination. For example, G. Engelhardt and A. Krymin believe that the persecution of Muslims in Russia from the “European point of view” does not exist. Islam is classified as a traditional religion, there are no obstacles to action for religious rights, the authorities provide assistance for the construction of new mosques, Islamic religious figures participate in government events and the media federal governments provide their representatives with a platform to spread their message. This is, in their view, enough to ensure that Russian Muslims are not discriminated against on the basis of religion. It seems to me that if such conclusions can be drawn, they are limited to the north-western and central regions of Russia. Due to the vastness of the territory of our country, it is impossible to construct categorical theories and define Islamophobia for the entire state. In all regions this manifests itself in different ways, since the percentage of Muslims is not the same everywhere. In some regions, general xenophobic attitudes among the population do not represent a manifestation of religious hatred. For example, in the Russian regions of the European part of Russia and the Urals, the emphasis is on the ethnicity of visitors and not on Islam. On the other hand, a number of Muslim leaders see manifestations of Islamophobia in Russia, which in their opinion consists of identifying Islam with terrorism, not recognizing a number of Sharia norms, criticize certain norms of Islam in the event of refusal to grant land for mosques. A striking example of such discrimination is the so-called Operation Fatima. According to this 2003 order, many Muslim women were tested as potential suicide bombers (or “suicide bombers”). It was no longer enough for Muslim believers to show the policeman a passport with their registration. According to the instructions of the Ministry of Interior within the framework of this special operation, it was recommended to control citizens who wear Islamic clothing, especially women wearing headscarves. According to G. Engelhardt and A. Krymin, the emergence of the problem of Islamophobia in Russia is associated with the confrontation between the United States and the Islamic world. They believe that raising the issue of real or hypothetical persecution can be beneficial to the Muslim community for the following reasons: attracting new members, consolidating external pressure, attracting the attention of the opposition and the foreign public, demonstrating its power and influence world news. It turns out that the problem of Islamophobia can be directly linked to political disagreements between the United States and Russia. Some think thatthe United States uses military conflicts in the Middle East to try to sow fear in Russia and find its vulnerable point. Iran is presented as a “model” Muslim country, and the Iranian missile program serves as a pretext to deploy the American missile defense system. But this system is to a greater extent directed against Russia. Thus, the Americans attract the Europeans to their side (and against Russia), because the more Europeans fear Iran, the more willing they will be to support the American missile defense initiative. All these factors and manifestations lead to the fact that it is impossible to rid the problem of Islamophobia in Russia while the population is under the influence of the media and the government takes measures to discriminate against Islamic society. “Islamophobia has never disappeared in Russia, but it has now reached its peak in the entire post-communist era, and the authorities are doing nothing to stop it. It gained momentum with the start of the war in Chechnya and increases with each terrorist attack attributed to Chechen terrorists... All Muslims living in the country become the target of fear and hatred of the Russians. by the ECM - the European Observatory, which studies issues of discrimination against the Muslim population. For example, with the help of studies carried out in this center, it was found that after the events in London and New York, anti-Islamic propaganda increased significantly. Through ECM surveys, the main trends in the image and mood towards Islam among Europeans were formed and many prejudices and misconceptions were clarified. The majority of Muslims, despite the general trend towards acceptance, face discrimination in the areas of work, housing or education. For example, in Germany, where the general nationality of the average immigrant is Turkish, the unemployment rate among Muslims is 20%, while the national figure is only 8%. A similar situation occurs in the field of education. According to statistics, in countries where a significant share of migrants are Muslims, the percentage chance of obtaining higher education from a representative of Islam is much lower than that of the native population. Most Muslims in France do not receive specialized higher or secondary education. The same problem of Islamophobia also manifests itself when applying for a job. According to surveys, employers prefer to hire "white" citizens rather than a representative of Islam, or Africans and other nationalities. Another conclusion of the ECM study is that hostility towards Muslims is part of the broader framework of xenophobia and racism towards migrants and minorities. . Islamophobia comes into great entanglement with the discrimination of various minorities on the basis of religion, gender and cultural differences. The problem of migrants lies in their socio-economic marginalization, which leads them to coexist in “neighboring clans” and not to come into close contact with representatives of the main social group. The fear comes from ignorance and rejection, but the fault of the migrants themselves is also there. This factor is even more important than religion. Clearly, the media plays an important role in the formation of Islamophobia in Europe. Apart from a few atypical examples (the case of wearing the hijab in France), then, if we pay attention to the headlines of European newspapers, all sensational and security-threatening topics will be in one way or another linked to Islam. The danger comes from Islam: in the form of direct physical danger - in the case of terrorism; in the form of a danger to the unit.